by Nicola Spasoff
Architectural Historian, Manitoba Historic Resources Branch
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The following is an extract from a report entitled “War Memorials in Manitoba: An Artistic Legacy” available on the MHS Website [1] The report has its roots and inspiration in a 1996 inventory of Manitoba’s war memorials created by Mr. Patrick Morican of Gimli. In honour of the centenary of the beginning of the First World War in 1914, Morican proposed to update his original inventory.
The project grew larger as it became clear this was a topic worthy of extensive research, and likely to be of considerable interest to Manitobans. Staff at the Historic Resources Branch of Manitoba Tourism, Culture, Heritage, Sport and Consumer Protection, including the Province’s Architectural Historian, Nicola Spasoff, worked with Morican, incorporating his research into a series of essays exploring Manitoba’s war memorials in the context of the history of such monuments and of the war itself, and culminating in a guide to the different types of memorials in the province. A series of relevant extracts from Manitoba’s many community histories is also included. Finally, a section called “Learning Materials” provides suggestions for educators wishing to use the town cenotaph as a doorway to the study of local and broader history.
The essay here is a condensed version of a chapter examining the materials, people and processes that made Manitoba’s memorials. Readers are encouraged to seek out the full report with many more illustrations.
Designing and building Manitoba’s community war memorials was a remarkably complex enterprise, which is well worth examining. Though it is likely that we will never know exactly how any given monument came together or precisely who was involved, we can learn something of the process through a variety of sources. Many memorials are the product of several different people or firms: possibly an architect or designer, a sculptor, a carver, and a monument maker, as well as the actual installers.
Before a community could even begin thinking much about designers and materials, though, it generally had to gather funds. In the majority of cases, funds were collected—in amounts as small as fifty cents—from community members and local organizations, such as sports teams, churches, lodges, social clubs and business organizations. Rarely did a local government commit any money, though Neepawa was an exceptional case. Quite often, the whole effort was spearheaded by a women’s organization such as the Women’s Institute or the Imperial Order Daughters of the Empire. Energized by the wartime necessity of filling the shoes of men at the front, such groups found themselves with newly gained confidence and hard-won credibility as they forged ahead in the pursuit of the public good. [2]
Some communities debated the type of memorial they wanted. Should they spend their money on something practical, like a community hall? Some people argued that a useful memorial—especially if it were something they might have built anyway—would not express the deep respect for the dead that a statue, obelisk or other monument would do. Others thought that a building people used often would keep memory alive more effectively. Already in 1923 the Board of Trade in Brandon had concluded that “statuary, beautiful as it is, as a war memorial is becoming threadbare.” [3] They recommended the purchase of a carillon of twenty-three bells, though a year later Brandon erected a stone Cross of Sacrifice.
Once a community or committee had determined that it would erect a war memorial of some kind, it was quite common for representatives to write to the government—often the Ministry of Defence—for advice. They asked for design ideas, suggestions about suitable locations, and, of course, money. By 1919, the government had determined that it would not pay for community war memorials. Indeed, strapped as it was for cash in the post-war era, the Ministry regularly charged communities for paltry favours, such as for the train fare for the buglers it sometimes lent to unveiling ceremonies. [4]
One thing the government would often provide was captured guns—war trophies from the front. These were collected throughout the war, and the Dominion Archivist, Sir Arthur Doughty, had the task of recording where and by which unit they had been taken, and where they ended up. [5] Sir Arthur received hundreds of requests for guns to use on memorials; by the time he was finished, 3,450 German guns were in use beside, on, or even as memorials across the country. Most have disappeared, some having rotted or been removed for safety reasons. Many others were melted down during the Second World War. In Selkirk the town council decided in 1942 to turn the guns in War Memorial Park over to the local salvage committee to support the new war effort. [6] Douglas, Manitoba has one of the few remaining examples—a machine gun that sits on top of its monument.
Like the one in Douglas, some of the simplest monuments are cairns, perhaps constructed by handy community members, probably from local stones. Bronze or marble plaques with inscriptions most likely came from a nearby monument maker. A more unusual “homemade” monument was put up in Treesbank even as the war still raged. Completed eighteen months before the Armistice, the painted wooden “Treesbank War Shrine” (since replaced by a stone cairn) was about three metres high, with painted inscriptions that suffered badly from weathering despite the shingled overhang protecting them.
Requiring the services of one or more professionals are the various tablets, obelisks, columns, etc. that make up a large number of Manitoba’s memorials. These, too, are most likely to be fairly local productions, having been designed and made by whatever nearby firm was generally in charge of gravestones and similar monuments. More elaborate constructions often involved an architect working with a monument firm. The cenotaph in Stonewall, with its four lion’s head fountains, is such an example. It was designed by the Winnipeg architect Gilbert Parfitt and built of Tyndall and local stone.
A war shrine at Treesbank, seen in this September 1968 photo, has since been replaced by a stone cairn.
Souce: Archives of Manitoba, H. G. H. Smith Collection
Many of the most complicated monuments are those topped by figural sculptures, which are most often stone or, more rarely, bronze. These figures generally stand on a stone pedestal of more or less complexity. Most often, the pedestals, with their inscriptions, were made locally or semi-locally by a monument maker (a firm which might find most of its business making gravestones), but the sculptural parts are almost always imported.
Memorials in Manitoba and elsewhere range enormously in their size and grandeur, but the grief and pride that underlie them are palpable in each. We always hope that, by remembering the past, we will protect ourselves from repeating it. But even as some of Manitoba’s memorials had barely been unveiled—hats only just replaced on the bared heads of bereft families and friends, the bugle back in its case—the rumblings of the next war were audible.
Not long after these memorials were erected, “lest we forget,” another generation of young men was sucked into the abyss. Once that conflict had finally ended, space was found on many memorials to carve a fresh set of names. A discerning eye might detect a slight difference in the words “World War II,” perhaps compacted a little to fit where, it was thought, no such addition would be needed. Sometimes a bronze or stone plaque or a separate tablet is added for the second war. On many memorials, the Korean War also finds a place. Other communities chose to add a second cairn or a nearby slab for these later conflicts.
We know of no detailed information on the processes that must have attended the commissioning, planning, design, manufacture and construction of any Manitoba monument. But there is good information available on the memorial in Moosomin, Saskatchewan—which is on the Trans-Canada Highway not far from Virden—and it is reasonable to assume that the process was not so different from what went on in many Manitoba towns. [7]
In Moosomin, initial planning and fundraising began as early as 1919. The process officially started early in 1923, with an advertisement in the local newspaper seeking sculptors and marble firms to provide sketches and design ideas within a budget of $4,000. The response was surprisingly broad: a dozen firms or individuals (including a sculptor from California) submitted ideas, but the committee was able to winnow these quickly down to three or four as they had already decided they wanted a bronze statue of a soldier standing on a stone monument with names carved into it.
The successful bidder was Guinn and Simpson, of Portage la Prairie, which we know to have been responsible for a number of monuments in Manitoba. Reportedly, they recommended their design number 172 to Moosomin. Despite the firm’s experience, a delay was caused when they learned that they would require a larger main stone on which to carve the more than 60 names of Moosomin war dead—a much longer list than they had expected.
It appears that Guinn and Simpson placed an order for a bronze soldier figure with an Italian bronze foundry in June 1923, about the same time they began work on the granite base. The majority of the Italian figures that were imported to Canada were carved in marble, but the people of Moosomin made the wise, if expensive, decision to use the much more durable material. It seems that the bronze figure was cast in Florence from a plaster model made in Carrara by a sculptor named Sergio Vatteroni. Once cast, it was shipped by steamer to New York, making its way to Moosomin via Montréal. Delays in shipping meant it could not be unveiled on 11 November of that year, as planned, but had to wait until the late summer of 1924.
A site was selected at a downtown intersection. The Government of Saskatchewan lent the town an engineer to help with the planning and technical aspects of the site preparation, and the work was carried out by volunteers. Another department provided blueprints for landscaping.
We can thus see that a lot of people were involved in the planning, design and erection of this monument. This does not even include the many who involved themselves in fundraising, including an energetic local girls’ club formed specifically for the purpose.
Looking back from nearly a century later, it may come as a surprise that a small prairie town was blithely ordering bronze statuary from Italy and corresponding with Californian sculptors, but this is the story of many such memorials in Manitoba and elsewhere. Of Manitoba’s many memorials topped by figures, all of the marble figures are almost certainly imported from Carrara, with the supporting plinths etc., and their inscriptions, and perhaps relief carvings, having been done more locally. That being said, a number of these figures were designed by local sculptors, and several other figures were actually made in Canada—a few even in Manitoba. Following is an effort to identify and describe the major factors—materials, firms, and people—in the making of Manitoba’s war memorials between the wars.
Memorial at Elm Creek. The red stone directly below the obelisk is engraved “To the immortal memory” of the sixteen men (their names on the sides of the stone) from the district who died in the Great War. Five battle sites are listed on the back. The lower, dark grey stone, tablet at the bottom was added later, and reads “In memory of those who gave their lives in the war of 1939–1945.” It lists 21 names.
Souce: Gordon Goldsborough
Across Canada, figural memorials were one of the most popular types, and Manitoba has many examples. Some are rather generic, but many are fine works of art, and evoke strong emotional reactions. They are most often carved in marble, but a few are bronze or carved in other stones.
The first thing to understand is the basic differences between the common materials used for figural sculptures such as these. The two most likely materials are bronze and stone, with bronze being particularly long-lasting, and also by far the more expensive option. Stone ranges from quite soft and subject to weathering (such as marble) to very hard (igneous rocks such as granite) though no stone is as robust as bronze. Stone monuments of all kinds are also vulnerable to vandalism; they may be broken when hit with a hard object, and paint is difficult or even impossible to remove completely.
All of the marble figures on First World War memorials in Manitoba and elsewhere are almost certainly of Italian manufacture. In general, a local memorial manufacturer would have been the go-between for ordering these figures, and would have installed them on bases made here. The origin of these figures in Italy helps explain why their uniforms are not always 100% accurately Canadian, though the carvers were usually careful to put a maple leaf where Canadian uniforms had this symbol (on the cap and collar). Few names of sculptors have come down to us, and many of these Italian marbles are quite generic—they would probably have been selected from a catalogue or a generalized description, and often resemble each other quite closely.
These off-the-shelf Italian marbles vary greatly in sculptural quality, in expression, and in verisimilitude as Canadian soldiers. We don’t know what the process was for ordering these figures, so we can’t know whether a community could pay more for a statue by a more talented or experienced sculptor, or whether it was just luck. Many figures, however, resemble each other so closely in pattern that we might imagine they were ordered from a catalogue description. The figures at Newdale and Binscarth, for example, might have been described almost identically in a catalogue. It might run something like this: “Standing figure of a soldier looking forward, with rifle at his side. Available with either helmet or cap, in any national uniform as specified.”
A marble soldier atop the war memorial at Newdale, Manitoba.
Souce: Historic Resources Branch
Such a description basically describes both figures, but they are very different as realized. Aside from details such as the fact that the Newdale soldier—who also appears as an adult man—is combat-ready with webbing (personal load-carrying equipment) and a helmet, our young Binscarth soldier is stiff and expressionless, with far less depth about his uniform. Both figures stand at attention (the Newdale figure with his left leg slightly advanced), but the Newdale soldier is far more naturalistic than the static Binscarth figure, who looks as if he might be holding his breath. Each of these memorial figures is an equal expression of the loss experienced by its community, but such details mean that some speak to us more eloquently today.
It is instructive to look farther afield, to other countries that were purchasing Italian marble figures in memory of their dead. A look at figures from New Zealand and Australia suggests that our hypothetical catalogue description might not be far off; many are nearly identical in pattern to the Manitoba figures.
In addition to the standard figures produced by quarries, Carrara sculptors would also work to designs that were sent to them. This resulted in a number of more individualized figures, including some to which we can attach the name of a local or Canadian sculptor. To help us understand how this process might have worked in the case of an individually commissioned work, we can look at the Ontario sculptor Frances Loring and her memorial for the Law Society of Upper Canada, in Toronto. [8]
Loring began by working on a clay model, which the committee then reviewed and, after suggesting a few modifications, approved before she made a full-sized plaster cast that would be used by the eventual marble carvers to create an exact copy with the help of calipers and precise measurements. The cast was shipped to Italy, and Loring herself went to Carrara to select the marble to be used for the sculpture, and to supervise its carving. This is obviously a much more involved process, for a memorial done for an organization with deeper pockets than most Manitoba towns, but it does give us a notion of the general process by which a Canadian sculptor’s work in a Canadian location might actually have been carved by Italians in Carrara.
Manitoba has several examples of marble figures designed by a local sculptor, as we shall see. It is not known at this time whether the Italian sculptors would have worked from a small plaster or clay model, from photographs of a model, or, as in the case of Loring’s work, whether a full-sized plaster model would actually have been sent to Italy.
Marble is quite subject to damage, and many Manitoba war memorials show the depredations of weathering or vandalism. It was the most common stone for war memorial figures, but limestone, sandstone and granite were also used. Limestone, a sedimentary rock of which marble is a metamorphic form, is softer than marble, while sandstone (also sedimentary, but mostly made up of tiny grains of the hard mineral quartz) is somewhat harder. The igneous rock granite is harder yet, making it difficult to carve but extremely durable. At the Russell memorial, Emanuel Hahn’s Grieving Soldier figure (illustrated below under “Emanuel Hahn”) is carved in granite. It was supplied by the Thomson Monument Company, where it (and several others that found homes across Canada) was carved to Hahn’s design by company artisans. The figures of the Belgian Monument [9] in Winnipeg (see below under “Hubert Garnier”) are carved from andesite, a hard igneous rock from Haddington Island, BC.
An angel conveying a dead soldier to heaven was unveiled in 1922 in front of the Winnipeg CPR station on Higgins Avenue. Created by sculptor Coeur de Lion MacCarthy (1881–1979), the monument commemorated the 1,125 railway employees killed during the First World War. The monument was later moved to the grounds of the Deer Lodge Hospital.
Souce: Historic Resources Branch
Bronze is probably the most durable material for statuary, though its cost made its use quite rare. Most bronze figures were cast in Europe, but in 1920 the Canadian William A. Rogers Limited Company published a catalogue of memorial designs which, though it focussed largely on plaques, also featured several images of bronze figures. Of particular interest to Manitobans is the over-life-sized statue of a pensive infantryman, leaning on his rifle, with his chin resting on his hand. According to the catalogue, Rogers was at that time the only bronze foundry in Canada that had successfully made large casts like this, but even more interesting is that we recognize the figure as a cast from a model by a St. Boniface sculptor named Nicolas Pirotton (see below for more information).
The majority of Manitoba’s bronze figural monuments are found in Winnipeg. These include the St. Boniface Memorial, the Next of Kin Memorial on the Legislative Grounds, the Canadian Pacific Railway Memorial, now at Deer Lodge, and the Bank of Montréal memorial at Portage and Main. Bronze figures elsewhere are the figure of a soldier in greatcoat in Neepawa, probably from Italy, and the figure of the ”Herald of Peace”—an angel blowing a bugle—in the Memorial Room in Carmen’s Memorial Hall. This figure was definitely cast in Canada, as it also appears in the Rogers catalogue.
Creator of the figure topping the St. Boniface War Memorial (unveiled in 1920), Eugène Benet was a well known sculptor in Paris. His design for Le Poilu Victorieux, which we find on this monument to the fallen French of Western Canada, was widely marketed by the Durenne foundry in Paris. Indeed, it is believed that over 900 casts of this figure were made, making it the most common work of public art in France. The design is thought to have been based on a celebrated war poster showing a charging French soldier, one arm outstretched and a rifle in the other, shouting encouragement to his compatriots. [10] It is a rare example of a French soldier on a Canadian war memorial; another is part of the memorial at St. Claude, which was designed in Manitoba by Nicolas Pirotton. Benet was born in Dieppe in 1863, and studied at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He died in Paris in 1942.
Born in Minnesota in 1876, and studying in Chicago and Paris, James Earle Fraser was a prominent American sculptor. His large oeuvre of figurative sculptures includes many well known commemorative sculptures and memorials. When the Bank of Montréal announced an international competition to choose a sculptor to create a memorial to its 230 fallen employees, Fraser submitted two designs. Both were chosen: a soldier in bronze (in American uniform) was unveiled in 1923 in front of the Winnipeg bank branch at Portage and Main, and a white marble allegorical figure of Victory, carrying a sword sheathed in palm fronds, stands in the main branch in Montréal. Fraser died in 1953.
Sculptor Hubert Garnier (1903–1987), who apprenticed with Mount Rushmore creator Gutzon Borglum, at work in his Winnipeg studio on the fallen soldier featured in his Belgium War Memorial on Provencher Boulevard.
Souce: Historic Resources Branch
Sculptor of the figures for the Belgian War Memorial, Hubert Garnier was born in 1903 in Chasseneuil, France, and settled in St. Boniface with his parents about ten years later. He studied art in Winnipeg, Chicago and Vancouver, became an adept carver, and apprenticed with artists in Paris, New York and Chicago before returning home. He died in Winnipeg in 1987 after a productive career that included many projects at home, in the United States, and elsewhere in Canada.
The soldier in front of the Bank of Montreal at the corner of Portage and Main, wearing an American uniform from the First World War, was created by American sculptor James Earl Fraser.
Souce: Archives of Manitoba, St. Boniface - War Memorial #2, N17244
Born in Reutlingen, Germany in 1881, Emanuel Hahn moved with his family to Canada at age seven. He studied art and design in Ontario and Stuttgart, and went on to a distinguished career as a sculptor, starting with Toronto’s McIntosh Marble and Granite Company in 1901.
From 1908–1912, Hahn worked as an assistant to Walter S. Allward, who would later create Canada’s war memorial at Vimy Ridge. In 1906, he also began working on contract with the Thomson Monument Company, a 40-year professional relationship which saw him become chief designer. Many of Thomson’s advertisements feature his designs, but they rarely promoted him by name after the war lest his German roots lose them business. Their fear was not unfounded: in 1925 Hahn’s design beat out 47 others to unanimously win the competition to design Winnipeg’s cenotaph, but his German birth caused an uproar and he ultimately lost the commission.
Despite this handicap, Hahn’s five distinct soldier figures appear on war memorials in at least 19 communities across the country. Manitoba has an example of his “Grieving Soldier” in Russell. The actual carving was done in granite by Thomson company stone carvers following Kahn’s original bronze, which stands in Westville, Nova Scotia. This design was his most popular, and other companies borrowed heavily from, or even nearly copied it, for their own business. Manitoba has an example of this in Killarney. Carved of marble in Italy, Killarney’s figure was supplied by Hooper Marble and Granite, of Winnipeg. Hahn died in Toronto in 1957.
Coeur de Lion MacCarthy (1881–1979) was the son of Hamilton MacCarthy, a sculptor responsible for a range of war memorials, especially for the Boer War. The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) commissioned the younger MacCarthy to create a bronze memorial to the 1,125 CPR employees killed in the war. Three were cast: for Montreal, Winnipeg and Vancouver. Winnipeg’s was unveiled in 1922.
MacCarthy also created war memorial figures in bronze for Lethbridge, Alberta, Trois-Rivières and Verdun, Québec, and Niagara Falls, Ontario.
As Alan MacLeod has observed, MacCarthy’s war memorial figures exhibit an emotional range probably unmatched among Canada’s war memorial sculptors, from the CPR’s elegant angel bearing a peaceful fallen soldier to heaven, through Lethbridge’s mourning soldier resting on arms reversed, to the determined infantryman in Trois-Rivières, apparently about to plunge his bayonet into the viewer below. [11]
Nicolas Pirotton was born in Liège, Belgium in 1882, and immigrated to St. Boniface in 1907. Here he pursued his métier as a stone carver. In 1917 he founded his own studio, specializing in commemorative and funerary monuments, on the Rue Dubuc; in the late 1920s he was advertising “Marble and Granite Monuments.” Pirotton was active in the community, founding the Belgian Relief Fund and being an amateur actor and cornet player, among other accomplishments. [12] He served St. Boniface as alderman from 1930 until his death in 1943.
Pirotton was responsible for a number of war memorials in Manitoba. The figure in Morden and the face in the arch in St. Andrew’s have also been attributed to him, probably incorrectly. [13] Pirotton was for a time foreman and plant superintendent with the Western Stone Company, [14] which is credited with manufacturing the Morden monument. However, that monument dates from 1921, and Pirotton had left the firm four years before. Also, the Morden figure is stylistically very different from Pirotton’s more sophisticated pensive soldier figure, which must have been designed slightly earlier, and which was used on monuments in St. Claude, St. Pierre-Jolys, Emerson and MacGregor, and in Weyburn, Saskatchewan. The Weyburn figure was carved in Italy, [15] and it is likely that they all were. The same figure appears, in bronze, in the 1920 catalogue of the foundry department of Canadian William A. Rogers Limited, and in bronze it was used for a memorial in Gananoque, Ontario.
Another figure, of a soldier holding a rifle in his left hand and a grenade in his right, appears in bronze in Brockville (1924). It is said to have been modelled as a portrait of Major Thain Wendell MacDowell, a local man who had been awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions at Vimy Ridge. [16] The figure was cast by the Allis Chalmers Company of Toronto. The town of Meaford, Ontario appears to have another cast of the same figure. Orangeville, Ontario has a very similar figure, but with the rifle resting on the shoulder. This may be Pirotton’s work, or that of an imitator. Like MacCarthy’s soldier in Trois-Rivières, these figures are quite unusual among Canadian memorials in depicting a soldier in the very moment of combat.
Pensive soldier in bronze. A page from the catalogue of Toronto’s Canadian William A. Rogers Limited featured a design by Nicolas Pirotton. A stone version was used on monuments at Emerson, MacGregor, St. Claude, and St. Pierre-Jolys.
Souce: Library and Archives Canada, RG24, Vol. 4262, File 107-1-2
It is tempting to think that this design was influenced by Benet’s dynamic “Poilu Victorieux” figure for St. Boniface, on which Pirotton had done the final preparations before it was mounted on its pedestal several years earlier. [17] The energetic posture of the Brockville figure is quite a departure from Pirotton’s earlier pensive soldier, and even the position of the body, with a rifle in his left hand and his right hand raised (in this case to throw a grenade rather than to wave a wreath of victory) is similar.
Born Marguerite Jud in Paris in 1886, Mrs. Hilliard Taylor (as she usually called herself professionally) learned her art in the Paris studio of Antoine Bourdelle, who was in turn a pupil of the great French sculptor Auguste Rodin. She met her husband, Hilliard Taylor, in Paris, and came with him to Winnipeg in the early years of the twentieth century, where she maintained a studio. Among her many works is her bust of Chief Peguis in Winnipeg’s Kildonan Born Marguerite Jud in Paris in 1886, Mrs. Hilliard Taylor (as she usually called herself professionally) learned her art in the Paris studio of Antoine Bourdelle, who was in turn a pupil of the great French sculptor Auguste Rodin. She met her husband, Hilliard Taylor, in Paris, and came with him to Winnipeg in the early years of the twentieth century, where she maintained a studio. Among her many works is her bust of Chief Peguis in Winnipeg’s Kildonan
Probably her most familiar work is her figure for the Next-of-Kin Monument on the Legislative Grounds in Winnipeg, from 1922. She sculpted the figure in London, England (as she did with all of her large works), using as her model a soldier who was a veteran of the horrors of Passchendaele. Nonetheless, the figure is a rare example of a joyous figure on a war memorial, because she chose to depict the moment when peace was declared, noting that she “wanted to do a happy soldier so the bereaved wives and mothers would not be too much saddened when they looked at it.” [18] Marguerite Taylor died in Winnipeg in 1964.
Gilbert C. Parfitt was born in England in 1887. Having studied architecture there, he immigrated to Winnipeg in 1912, where he became Provincial Architect in 1923. In addition to the cenotaphs in Stonewall (1922) and Winnipeg (1928), he is known for his work on a wide range of buildings, including the Tier and Buller buildings at the University of Manitoba, the Cathedral Church of St. John in Winnipeg, and several consolidated schools. He died in Vancouver in 1966.
The Stonewall Cenotaph was crafted in 1922 by architect Gilbert Parfitt (1887–1966), who also designed the cenotaph that stands on Memorial Boulevard in Winnipeg.
Souce: Historic Resources Branch
Three firms dominated the war memorial business in Canada in the postwar period: Thomson Monument Company, McIntosh Granite Company, and Canadian William A. Rogers Limited (later Frank G. Tickell). All were located in Toronto, produced catalogues, and marketed their wares across the country. We know of Manitoba projects by Rogers and Thomson; to date, Manitoba has no known examples of work by the McIntosh Granite Company. Smaller firms with a more local clientele also did memorial work, and some had connections to foundries or quarries in Europe. Among others, Guinn and Simpson of Portage la Prairie and Hooper Marble and Granite of Winnipeg did work for memorials in Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
1. www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/features/warmemorials
2. Shipley, Robert. To Mark our Place: A History of Canadian War Memorials. Toronto: NC Press, 1987, p. 57.
3. Winnipeg Tribune, 14 August 1923, p. 2.
4. Shipley, pp. 62–63.
5. Shipley, pp. 161–164.
6. Winnipeg Tribune, 1 April 1942, p. 11.
7. See the entry for Moosomin at “We Will Remember: War Monuments in Canada” (Newfoundland and Labrador Centre for Distance Learning and Education) website at www.cdli.ca/monuments.
8. Law Society of Upper Canada. website: www.lsuc.on.ca/PDC/Archives/Virtual-Museum/WW1/The-World-War-One-Memorial.
9. Winnipeg Historic Buildings Committee, “Boulevard Provencher Belgian War Memorial,” January 1995, at www.winnipeg.ca/ppd/historic/pdf-consv/Provencher0-long.pdf
10. Sherman, Daniel J. The Construction of Memory in Interwar France. University of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 189.
11. MacLeod, Alan. Annotated photostreams of figurative war memorials across the country. See particularly “The Memorialists” at https://www.flickr.com/photos/bigadore/collections/72157632460045768// and “War Memorials” at www.flickr.com/photos/bigadore/collections/72157627507664602.
12. “Nicolas Pirotton,” family history at www.dujardindefanfan.be/Nicolas_pirotton.htm
13. Shipley, p. 133.
14. Winnipeg Tribune, 22 November 1943, p. 11.
15. Winnipeg Tribune, 27 May 1924, p. 12.
16. Brockville Museum Website at www.brockvillemuseum.com/museum/military/cenotaph.html
17. Winnipeg Tribune, 14 September 1920, p. 1.
18. Winnipeg Free Press, 13 April 1963, p. 17.
We thank Clara Bachmann for assistance in preparing the online version of this article.
We thank S. Goldsborough for assistance in preparing the online version of this article.
Page revised: 2 April 2020
